Early in 1993 there was a health scare related to the use of cellular
telephones.  A law suit, filed by a man in Florida, claimed that the use
of cellular phones exacerbated his wife's brain cancer causing her death
earlier than would have occured if she had not used the phones.

Cellular carriers scrambled to gather data to support the position that
cellular phones are harmless.  In short order a list of journal articles
was released by the cellular industry.  The following is a review of 14
of these articles.

Pacific Knowledge has done no actual research in this area.  This was
only an attempt to turn complex biological research into a form where
people in the telecommunications industry would understand it.  This is
why information such as carrier frequency and power are seperated for
clarification.

                        --------<o>---------
				    
                    Overview of the Articles Reviewed 

The experimentation done on physiological effects of electromagnetic radiation 
as presented in these articles was carried out by a small number of researchers
using primarily non-human tissue.

Of the fourteen articles reviewed, five of the articles deal with Calcium-Ion 
efflux (outflow) from brain tissue. Experiments were done on different animals.
Two articles deal with rats, two with chicks and one with cats.  The two on 
rats were authored in 1981 and 1982 by the same people.  The two on chicks 
were written in 1980 by the same group. The one on cats was written in 1982 
by Adey, Bawin and Lawrence.  One of these authors, Ross Adey, along with 
Robert Lundak, authored T-Lymphocyte suppression in 1983 and the Alteration 
of Protein Kinase in 1984.

The work of Shelton and Merritt on rats in 1981 was based largely on the work 
of Bawin and Adey from 1975 through 1978. This work was on Calcium efflux in 
the 147 and 450 MHz ranges.  Shelton and Merritt tried in the 1GHz range. 
They noted no calcium efflux from rat brains in that frequency, modulated and 
using an array of power levels. 

In 1982 Shelton and Merritt tried again adding Albert Chamness to the team.  
They tried at 1GHz and also at the 2.45 GHz range.  They noted no significant 
difference in the outflow of calcium from rat neural tissue between the 
irradiated and the control (non-irradiated) group.  In this article, Adey was 
cited for his work with "windows" for effective power density and modulation 
frequency.

In 1982 Adey, Bawin and Lawrence tested the efflux (outflow) of calcium in a 
cat's brain.  They found it to be similar to that found in chick brains.  
They also studied behavioral patterns in an awake cat during irradiation.  
They noted a rise in CO2 in the breathing pattern.

Significance of 2450MHz
This is the frequency used by microwave ovens, and the frequency proposed 
for microwave transfer of solar electric energy from outer space.  It is also 
near the resonant frequency of mice (in case you are concerned).

Significance of 450MHz and 147MHz
This is the frequency used by police, fire etc.  Much of the early work was 
done at these frequencies.  Therefore, later work, trying to repeat or do 
work based on earlier work was done at the same frequencies.

                        --------<o>---------          

Induction of Calcium-Ion Efflux From Brain Tissue by Radiofrequency 
Radiation:Effect of Sample Number and Modulation Frequency on the Power-Density
Window
Bioelectromagnetics 1:35-43 (1980)

C.F. Blackman, S.G. Benane, J.A. Elder, D.E. House, J.A. Lampe, and J.M. Faulk

Carrier Frequency: 147 MHz  

Carrier Modulation: 16 and 9 Hz

Power: 0.83mW/cm2

Subject Animal: Chicks (Gallus domesticus)

Replicates and extends previous work showing changes in calcium- ion binding 
to brain tissue.  Answers the questions: 1)does the width of the power density
window depend on the number of brain samples exposed simultaneously in our 
system? and 2) does the frequency of modulation affect the location or width 
of this window?

The "window" did indeed grow larger with an increase in sample quantities.  
The results of modulation at 9Hz were the same as for 16Hz.

This paper supports the idea that a select range of modulation frequencies of 
a 147MHz carrier do cause a change in the flow of calcium from brain tissue in
a test tube.  Both the mechanism for this occurance and what the consequences 
for the living animal are yet to be determined according to this article.

                        --------<o>---------

Calcium-Ion Efflux From Brain Tissue: Power-Density Versus International 
Field-Intensity Dependences at 50-MHz RF Radiation
Bioelectromagnetics 1:277-283 (1980)

C.F.Blackman, S.G.Benane, W.T.Joines, M.A.Hollis, and D.E.House

Health Effects Research Laboratory, U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, 
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

Carrier Frequency: 50MHz

Carrier Modulation: 9-16Hz sinusoidal modulation

Power: 1.44 to 1.67 mW/cm2 & 3.64 mW/cm2

Subject Animal: Chicks

Found to produce changes in calcium-ion efflux from chick brains.

The previous study shows that power densities of a 147 MHz carrier wave, 
modulated between 9 and 16 Hz can enhance the efflux of calcium ions from 
chick-brain tissue exposed in vitro. (test tube)

In this experiment it shows that positive findings are associated with 
3 power densities: 1.44, 1.67 and 3.64mw/cm2, while there was no effect at 
power densities of 0.37, 0.72, 2.17 or 4.32mW/cm2

This paper supports the idea of a power density "window", where only very 
specific power densities will effect any change in the flow of calcium from 
brain tissue.  Their experiment was identical to one they had performed 
previously at the 147MHz carrier frequency with similar windowing results, 
except at different power densities.  

The significance of the modulation frequency is that this is a frequency 
detected in the live animals brain through the use of EEGs 
(electroencephalograms).

This paper supports the idea that RF does have affects on brain tissue, but 
in a very narrow set of circumstances.

                        --------<o>---------

Attempts to Alter 45Ca2+ Binding to Brain Tissue with Pulse- Modulated 
Microwave Energy
Bioelectromagnetics 3:475-478 (1982)

James H. Merritt, Wesley W. Shelton, and Albert F. Chamness

Carrier Frequencies: 1GHz and 2.45 GHz

Modulation and Power:
17 combinations of power density and pulse repetition rates

Subject Animal: Rat Brain tissue

This article differs from the first two in that this experiment tests 
calcium efflux (outflow) from rat brains instead of chick brains.  Also, 
these experiments tested both brains exposed in a test tube and brains 
exposed while the rat was still alive.  The live rats were injected with 
the calcium.  Another difference in this experiment and the previous is 
that the carrier was pulse modulated (square wave) instead of amplitude 
modulated (sine wave).  Lastly, the carrier frequency is significantly 
different. This experiment is different in enough ways to say that it has 
little comparitive value to the first two experiments listed here.

The net result of these experiments were that there was no significant 
difference in the binding of calcium in rat brains that have or have not 
been irradiated with microwaves.

                        --------<o>---------

In Vitro Study of Microwave Effects on Calcium Efflux in Rat Brain Tissue
Bioelectromagnetics 2:161-167 (1981)

W.W.Shelton, Jr., and J.H.Merritt

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida Institute of 
Technology, Melbourne (W.W.S.), and USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, 
Brooks Air Force Base, Texas (J.H.M.)

Carrier Frequency: 1 GHz frequency

Carrier Modulation: 16Hz 
Modulated at 32Hz at 1.0 or 2.0mW/cm2 average power density

Power: 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 15mW/cm2

Results were that radiation conditions used did not alter calcium efflux 
in rat brain tissue.  This experiment differed from the 1st two rat 
experiments because of the higher frequency carrier and the means of 
modulation, pulse rather than sine wave.  There were other small experimental 
differences.  These experiments were carried out in a test tube.

                        --------<o>---------

Effects of Weak Amplitude-Modulated Microwave Fields on Calcium Efflux from 
Awake Cat Cerebral Cortex
Bioelectromagnetics 3:295-307 (1982)

W.R. Adey, S.M. Bawin, and A.F. Lawrence

Carrier Frequency: 450MHz

Carrier Modulation: 16Hz Sinusoidally Modulated

Power:  1 - 5mW/cm2

Subject Animal: Cat

This experiment on living cats was based on the earlier experiments with 
calcium in chick brains that showed heightened efflux of calium after being 
irradiated at 147MHz modulated at 16Hz.  It showed that there was a difference
in calcium efflux during radiation, that also corresponded to some 
physiological changes (CO2 respiration).

Not a lot of good for you/bad for you can be drawn from this experiment.  
It supports the idea of the narrow window of response.  At the end of the 
article they draw inference to other work they are doing at the same time 
with regard to the effect to the immune system by this alteration in calcium
binding.

                        --------<o>---------

Immunological Effects of Amplitude-Modulated Radio Frequency Radiation: 
B Lymphocyte Capping
Bioelectromagnetics 4:157-165 (1983)

Michel F. Sultan, Charles A.Cain, and Wayne A.F. Tompkins

Carrier Frequency: 147MHz Carrier   

Carrier Modulation: 9, 16, and 60Hz

Power: 0.11 to 48 mW/cm2

Subject Animal: Exposed ICR Swiss Mouse Spleens

Exposure 30 Minutes

This has to do with the release of Calcium ions released from brain tissue 
when irradiated in a narrow power band ~0.83 mW/cm2 modulated at 16Hz or 
within the frequencies associated with electroencephalograms.
No staticstically different B Lymphocyte capping was observed between the 
control (no RF) and the the RF Exposed tissue

This experiment is significant in that it takes a calcium dependent immune 
system response antigen-antibody capping and tests it in the presence of RF.  
This phenomenon is highly temperature sensitive.  In fact, in this experiment,
temperature did cause differences, but none that could be related to RF.  A 
wide range of power and modulation frequencies were used so as not to miss the
"window" described in previous experiments.

The authors "indemnify" themselves at the end by saying that their results 
were not definitive and that more work must be done.

                        --------<o>---------

Assessment of the Immune Responsiveness of Mice Irradiated With
Continuous Wave or Pulse-Modulated 425MHz Radio Frequency Radiation
Bioelectromagnetics 3:467-470 (1982)

R.J. Smialowicz, M.M. Riddle, C.M. Weil, P.L. Brugnolotti, and J.B. Kinn

Carrier Frequency:  425 MHz

Carrier Modulation:  Both CW and 1-ms pw @250 Pulses/second

Power: 78, 17.7, 5W CW  and  17.7, 1.25W for pulse modulated

Subject Animal: Mice

This experiment looks at the difference in biological effects between pulse 
modulated and CW radiation.  The authors stated that if such a difference 
were seen it would complicate the ability to set standards for humans based 
on power only.

The result was that there was no observed difference between irradiated and 
non-irradiated mice, either CW or pulse modulated.

                        --------<o>---------

Suppression of T-Lymphocyte Cytotoxicity Following Exposure to Sinusoidally 
Amplitude-Modulated Fields
Bioelectromagnetics 4:157-165 (1983)

Daniel B. Lyle, Patricia Schechter, W. Ross Adey, and Robert L. Lundak

Carrier Frequency: 450MHz

Carrier Modulation: Modulated between 0 and 100 Hz

Power: 1.5 mW/cm2

This paper says that the authors observed a suppression of the immune system 
centered around a 60Hz modulation of a 450MHz carrier.  As the modulation 
changed either up or down, the effect decreased substantially.  Even the 
affect at 60Hz was noted as being transient.  There was complete recovery of 
the animals from this affect was observed 12 1/2 hours after being irradiated.

It is possible that, once again, calcium efflux could be responsible for this 
phenomenon.  The important point here is that the modulation frequency 
specific response is very low frequency (60Hz), and goes away above or below 
it.  Also, complete recovery occurs with time.

                        --------<o>---------

Alterations in Protein Kinase Activity Following Exposure of Cultured Human 
Lymphocytes to Modulated Microwave Fields
Bioelectromagnetics 5:341-351 (1984)

Craig V. Byus, Robert L. Lundak, Ramona M. Fletcher, and W. Ross Adey

Carrier Frequency: 450MHz

Carrier Modulation: 3 and 100Hz

Power: 1.0 mW/cm2

Subject: Human Tonsil Lymphocytes

Exposure up to 60 minutes

cAMP-dependent protein kinase unaffected at 16 and 60 Hz at 15, 30 and 60 
minute exposures.

Non-cAMP-dependent kinase activity fell to less than 50% of unexposed levels 
after 15 and 30 minute exposure, but returned to normal by 45 and 60 minutes.

Reduced enzyme activity occured with 16, 40 and 60 Hz modulation but not at 3,
6, 80 or 100 Hz.

This rapid but transient reduction in lymphocyte protein kinase activity 
restricted to modulation frequencies between 16 and 60 Hz and to less than 
30 Minute exposure is consistent with windowing with respect to modulation 
frequency and exposure duration.

Again, this article supports windowing of results.  This paper adds the 
additional window of time dependency.

                        --------<o>---------

Effects of Microwaves and Hyperthermia on Capping of Antigen- Antibody 
Complexes on the surface of Normal Mouse B Lymphocytes
Bioelectromagnetics 4:115-122 (1983)

Michel F. Sultan, Charles A. Cain, and Wayne A.F. Tompkins

Carrier Frequency: 2.45 GHz CW 

Power: 100mW/cm2

30 minutes

This article supports the earlier work that stated that unmodulated carriers 
would not produce biological results.  This article differs in the use of a 
higher frequency and relatively higher power.

                        --------<o>---------

Accelerated Development of Spontaneous and Benzopyrene-Induced skin Cancer in 
Mice Exposed to 2450MHz Microwave Radiation

Stanislaw Szmigielski, Andrzej Szudzinski, Andrzej Pietraszek, Marian Bielec, 
Marek, Janiak, and Jolanta K. Wrembel
Bioelectromagnetics 3:179-191 (1982)

Carrier Frequency: 2450MHz

Power: 15mW/cm2, 5mW/cm2

This experiment, important because of recent law suits, states that mice, 
either treated so that they would get cancer, or bred to have a high incidence
of cancer, got tumors quicker when irradiated.  These mice were irradiated 
for two hours a day for up to 6 months.  As expected, the mice irradiated 
at a power of 15mW got tumors sooner than the ones at 5mW.  

Mice stressed by confinement tend to get tumors quicker than mice living in 
an unbound environment.  Mice irradiated at 5mW got tumors at about the same 
rate/time as mice not irradiated and stressed by confinement.

Even though this article definitely states that long term exposure to 
microwave radiation "may be recognized as the potential carcinogenic risk 
factor", it also goes into more detail about the differences between mice 
and men (sorry).  Mice approach whole body resonanace near the carrier 
frequency.  The maximal absorption by a normal man at this frequency would 
be less by two orders of magnitude (less by a lot).  The human body's 
resonant frequency is between 60 and 70Hz.  Even at that frequency 
(60 to 70Hz) man's absorption would be 20% of that of the mouse at its 
resonant frequency.  It goes on to say that the mouse study has little value 
in determining the risk factor for humans.

                        --------<o>---------

In Vitro Microwave Effects on Human Neutrophil Precursor Cells (CFU-C)
Bioelectromagnetics 2:203-215 (1981)

Mark J. Ottenbreit, James C. Lin, Susumu Inoue, and Ward D Peterson, Jr

Carrier Frequency: 2450 MHz CW

Power: 31 - 1000 mW/cm2

Subject: Human Marrow Cells

Duration 15 min.

The importance of this paper is that even though there was a reduction in 
colonies of cells, these reductions did not happen until power levels reached 
at least 500mW.  

There was no reduction in neutrophil colony number on days 6-7 or 12-14 in 
cells exposed at 31 or 62 mW/cm2, but as the power density was increased to 
1000 mW/cm2 there was a reduction in colony number of microwave irradiated 
cells compared with the sham irradiated (Control group) cells.  The microwave 
interaction with the human neutrophil colony-forming cells was apparently not 
related to temperature rise, or to the state of cell cycle, and was 
irreversible.

                        --------<o>---------

Immunologic and Hematopoietic Alterations by 2,450-MHz Electromagnetic 
Radiation
Bioelectromagnetics 1:77-87 (1980)

Andrew Ta-Fu Huang and Nelda G.Mold

Division of Hemotology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Duke University 
Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina


Carrier Frequency: 2450Mhz

Power: 5 - 30 mW/cm2 

Subject Animal: Mice

Period 1 -17 days

This article shows that suppression of the immune system in mice  occurs. 
But, it is a complex interaction between different parts of the immune system.
One part of the immune system, macrophages, will suppress another part of the
immune system, lymphocytes.  But, eventually the microwaves stimulate the 
lymphocytes directly.  The study states that lymphocyte function (the ability 
to kill tumor cells) was not decreased by the influence of microwave radiation
over a ten day period. Of course "...no definite conclusions can be drawn from
these studies."

                        --------<o>---------

Guidlines on Limits of Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in 
the Frequency Range From 100kHz to 300GHz
Health Physics Vol. 54, No. 1(January), pp. 115-123, 1988

International Non-Ionizing  Radiation Committee of the International Radiation
Protection Association

According to Table 2 General public exposure limits to radiofrequency 
electromagnetic fields:

Using the Equivalent plane wave power density f/2000 where f=frequency

For 900MHz (cellular frequency)the limit would be would be 0.45mW/cm2
This is about the only useful bit of information in this article.

                        --------<o>---------

                              Summary 
						   
The significance of these articles, written over a decade ago, in their 
relation to the safety of cellular phones is suspect.  Work in this area did 
not cease 10 years ago. A significant number of publications, especially in 
Bioelectromagnetics, have been published since that time.  The number of 
articles related to microwave or rf energy and its biological effects number 
in the hundreds.

Most of the work that has been published, as in the case of these articles 
I have reviewed is in the 147MHz, 450MHz and 2450MHz frequency ranges.  These 
are the frequencies associated with public safety radio, microwave ovens and 
the proposed transfer of solar electric energy from outer space.

The articles, with the exception of one, came from the same journal and from 
a small number of investigators.  About half of the articles had to do with 
calcium.  This is the chemical that is most important in nerve communication 
and in binding sites for the immune system.  The result of this work largely 
stated that there is a very narrow "window" in which there is any effect from 
rf radiation.  Essentially, unmodulated carrier frequencies had no effect.  
Carriers modulated at very low frequencies, 9 to 100Hz had varying effects on 
the subject animals.  These animals included cats, rats and chicks.

The above studies support the fact that there is little harm from the effects 
of radiation associated with cellular phones.  They did this by supporting the
fact that the window of response is very narrow, is caused by low frequency 
sine waves only and that it took a great deal of exposure (relative to man) 
to cause these effects.

The articles stressed that much more work had to be done before inferrence to 
the health of man could be drawn.  None of the work was done in the frequency 
range, or power levels related to cellular phones.


